The Impact of Cultural Diversity upon Organizational Outcomes and Group Productivity

The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project analyzed and explored previous studies on cultural patterns before developing a single program measuring the extent of global cultural differences.  The mixed methods study utilized 170 researchers and agents to collect data from 17,000 middle managers from 951 organizations within 62 different countries (House, et al., 2004).  The sampling procedure ensured adequate representation of all major regions of the world.

Despite the reliable sampling procedure, Hofstede (2006) criticized the GLOBE study for using such a large number of researchers, which adversely influences the consistency of approach.  He also found the GLOBE study United States-centric.  Lastly, Hofstede felt the GLOBE study was an ethnocentric study in nature while his earlier research (1980) was a decentered study.

Results from the GLOBE study validated Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions while adding two additional dimensions: performance orientation and humane orientation.  These dimensions were included based on the belief that a performance-oriented society values and rewards performance, emphasizes results rather than people, and are concerned with individual achievement and excellence.  In a highly humane society, individuals are rewarded for being fair, altruistic, caring, kind and benevolent.  Addition of these two dimensions also addressed the concern with Hofstede’s research, which did not include long-term as well as ethical dimensions (Fang, 2003).  Compared to Hofstede’s research, the GLOBE study utilized the dimension “Gender Egalitarianism” rather than Masculinity compared to Femininity. 

The GLOBE program developed nine dimensions, which formed the independent variables for the study.  The nine cultural dimensions included: Uncertainty Avoidance, Power Distance, Gender Egalitarianism, Assertiveness, Future Orientation, Institutional Collectivism, In-Group Collectivism, Performance Orientation, and Humane Orientation (House, et al., 2004).  Results of the GLOBE project demonstrate the indirect influence of national culture upon leadership behaviors as reflected by societal expectancies. 

GLOBE results suggest an effective leader consistently utilizes leadership approaches best aligned to his or her followers’ cultural expectations.  Therefore, leaders acting in accord with societal expectations are most effective.  GLOBE results identify charismatic and value-based leadership as universally effective leadership approaches.  By contrast, GLOBE results identify participative leadership approaches as culturally sensitive.  By identifying superior compared to inferior organizational leaders in relation to the extent that their behaviors either exceeds or fails to meet their societal expectations, the GLOBE project increases understanding of the relationships between organizational behavior, cultural expectations, and successful leadership. 

As reported by Collins and Powell (2004), seminal work by Collins (2001), distinguished leaders by analyzing a paradoxical blend of genuine personal humility and intense professional will.  For example, Collins differentiated a leader exhibiting modesty and unwavering resolve from the leader that is shy and courteous yet fearless.  Based on a five-year study, Collins identified Level Five Leaders that transformed their good companies to great companies, achieving extraordinary results, and building great organizations without overt publicity.  As exhibited by the results of cultural assessment tools (Hofstede, 1980; House et al, 2004), societal cultural diversity can directly influence whether a transformational or transactional leadership approach would be most effective. 

With Level Five as the hierarchy, Collins developed a model predicated on transformational and transactional leadership behaviors.  Leaders whose style corresponds to Levels One–Four could be successful but they fail to elevate an organization to excellence.  A Level One leader relates to being a capable individual.  A Level Two leader is oriented toward teams and achieving group objectives.  The Level Three leader exhibits a transactional leadership approach (Vera, et al., 2004).  The Level Four leader exhibits transformational approaches.  Transactional leaders seek to guide followers toward established goals by clarifying objectives and task requirements.  Transformational leaders inspire followers to pursue an explicated, motivating vision, are concerned about followers’ well-being, and encourages innovation and creativity (Bass & Avolio, 1990, 1994, 1995, 2000). 

A Level Five leader is a clock builder rather than a time teller (Collins & Powell, 2004).  Their ability to identify great successors exhibits the difference.  Therefore, a Level Five leader exhibits unwavering resolve to build their companies for future success rather than being mainly concerned about the present.  When meeting or exceeding organizational objectives, the Level Five leader credits followers for successes while accepting personal responsibility for poor results.

Hogan and Hogan (2001) suggest this behavior is partly attributable to the Level Five leader’s personality.  In relation to their communication style, Level Five leaders and his or her followers are considered egalitarian rather than superior (Collins, 2001).  The Level Five leader surrounds himself or herself with followers who are confident but not self-centered (Collins, 2005).  Such humility is conceptualized as three-dimensional: self-awareness, openness, and acceptance of something greater than self (Morris et al., 2005).  

Given the globalization effort at hand, the need for better understanding cultural influences on leadership and organizational practices becomes essential for sustained team success.  As House et al (1998) reminds us, "Situations that leaders and prospective-leaders must face are highly complex, constantly changing, and difficult to interpret.  More than ever before, managers of international firms face fierce and rapidly changing international competition” (p.5).   Time zone diversity is an obvious managerial reality; the sun will never set on this new global organization. 

More than logistics, a thoughtful analysis will need to review the team managers’ diverse societal cultures.  Analysis of results from the Globe program data indicates variance in the new global team’s Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) dimension requires immediate attention.  It must be noted that the UA dimension exhibits much greater variance in the 5-D model results (Hofstede, 1980).  The Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) dimension is the extent to which members of a specific culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and as a result created beliefs and institutions designed to avoid risks, threats, ambiguity, or uncertainty.  The GLOBE data identifies UA ratings by managers from Singapore as 5.31 and ratings by managers from Germany as 5.22.  This contrasts sharply with the 3.39 UA ratings by Greek managers and 3.67 UA ratings by Iranian managers.  The 4.15 UA ratings by United States’ managers indicate American society is uncertainty accepting, exhibiting willingness to accept new ideas, innovation, and openness to trying something new.  As uncertainty avoidant societies, Iranian and Greek societies strongly prefer deductive rather than inductive approaches and strongly relying on expertise.  Societies exhibiting high uncertainty avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox ideas, often exhibiting an emotional need for rules (Hofstede, 2006).  By contrast, while German and Singapore societies may be rated as uncertainty accepting, contradictions with ratings compared to Hofstede 5-D results (1980) indicate the German and Singapore UA results may be related to those societal Power Distance ratings, which identify the extent that less powerful members within a society expect and accept that power is unequally distributed.  Based on exhibited variance noted with GLOBE data results and low correlation to the Hafstede (1980) 5-D data, the Uncertainty Avoidance and Power Distance dimensions ratings for this specific team needs to be further assessed to mitigate potential problems to the global team and adverse influence upon the greater organizational culture. 

Therefore, an effective leader creates a defined culture by optimizing structured organizational learning through the utilization of strategies exhibiting high levels of effectiveness.  The first pursuit in this endeavor is to mitigate learning overload.  Learning overload prevents leaders from helping followers realize progress and achieve stated goals (Reason, 2010).  Citing Kennedy (2006) and Franklin (2005), Reason (2010) further notes, “We can’t alter the brain to hold more information, but we can change our approach to learning in ways that reduce overwhelm and prepare us to deal with institutional challenges more effectively” (p. 99).  Cultural awareness and proactive planning accordingly will mitigate the potential for learning overload and thereby optimize this global team’s success.  

To Cite:

Anderson, C.J. (December 31, 2018) The impact of cultural diversity upon

organizational outcomes and group productivity [Web log post]

Retrieved from http://www.ucan-cja.blogspot.com/

References:

Collins, J. C., & Powell, S. (2004). Spotlight: The characteristics of level 5 leadership.

            Management Decision, (42) 5, 709-716.

Fang, T. (2003). A critique of Hofstede’s fifth national culture dimension”. International Journal

            of Cross Cultural Management, (3) 3.

Hofstede, G. (2006). What did GLOBE really measure? Researchers’ minds versus respondents’

 minds. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 882-896.

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V., Ed. (2004). Culture,

            leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Sage Publications, Inc.:

            Thousand Oaks, CA.

Hui, M. K., Au, K., & Fock, H. (2004). Empowerment effects across cultures. Journal of

            International Business Studies, 35, 46-60.

Javidan, M., House, R. J., Dorfman, P. W., Hanges, P. J., & Sully de Luque, M. (2006)

            Conceptualizing and measuring culture and their consequences: a comparative review of

            GLOBE’s and Hofstede’s approaches. Journal of International Business Studies, 37,

897-914.

Leung, K. (2006). Editor’s introduction to the exchange between Hofstede and GLOBE.

Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 881.

Reason, C. (2010). Leading a learning organization: The science of working with others.

           Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

Smith, P. B. (2006). When elephants fight, the grass gets trampled: the GLOBE and Hofstede

            projects. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 915-921.

Graduate Programs’ Curriculum Should Explicitly Develop Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Skills

Emotional intelligence has been linked to effective leadership (Goleman, 2002, 2008b).  The curriculum of education division graduate programs must explicitly address leadership skill development (CAEP, 2013).  However, in these programs, emotional intelligence behaviors may be implicitly encouraged rather than explicitly taught.  Given results of empirical research by Anderson (2016), either graduate program development or revision of curriculum should seek to optimize development of potential educational leaders by explicitly teaching, developing, and expecting the exhibition of emotional intelligence skills.  

Without effective leadership, education reform cannot take place (Creighton & Jones, 2001).  Effective educational leadership programs result from program experiences as well as the quality of entering candidates (Creighton & Jones, 2001).  Unfortunately, teacher preparation and induction programs remain pressured to accept adequate numbers of candidates to justify the program’s cost and existence (Creighton & Jones, 2001).  Obviously, a graduate program’s need for tuition increases the need for optimal curriculum effectiveness to achieve desired outcomes.

Accountability of advanced-level teacher preparation and school leadership programs remain an ongoing process (CAEP, 2013).  Typically, students’ evaluation of faculty, pre-admission compared to post-graduation surveys, and the annual state/accreditation council review of the program, produce the data used to ascertain each program’s effectiveness.  Leaders of teacher preparation and school leadership programs may erroneously identify courses as ineffective because it takes years before graduates actually attain a school leadership position.  This may cause reform-based coursework to become either forgotten or outdated (Bottoms & O’Neill, 2001).  Therefore, implementation of processes that develop broader leadership skills in decision-making and problem solving must serve a significant role within school leadership preparation programs (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005; Short, 1997).

A quantitative study by Sanders’ (2010) examined the perceptions of professors who address educational leadership in their work within institutes of higher education (IHE).  Specifically, Sanders sought to identify the professors’ understanding of competencies related to emotional intelligence and the extent to which these competencies were being included within their IHE teacher leadership programs.  Left unanswered was how demonstrated emotional intelligence related to the perceptions of an optimal school climate.  Maulding, Townsend, Leonard, and Sparkman, (2010) sought clarification of the correlation between the twenty-one leadership behaviors identified by Marzano et al., (2005) and student achievement.  In contrast to findings posited by the Marzano et al., (2005) meta-analysis, as evidenced by the school’s performance level, subsequent studies by Maulding et al. (2010, 2012) clearly indicated a potential correlation between emotional intelligence of school leaders and student achievement.

A study by Byron (2001) found educational programs that focus upon emotional intelligence behaviors produced successful outcomes.  Byron (2001) cited the benefits of attending to “the cultures of learning, to the individual's current abilities, propensities, and current conceptions, and to fundamental reorganizations of behavior, not just acceleration and fine-tuning" (Grotzer & Perkins, 2012, p. 510).  However, Mayer and Salovey (1997) cautioned against focusing solely upon one dimension or a single sub-skill of emotional intelligence.  Any program seeking to develop emotional intelligence skills “should be empirically defensible, measurable, and clear enough to serve as a basis for curriculum development" (Cobb & Mayer, 2000, p. 18).  

Teaching is considered one of the most stressful occupations (Palomera, Fernandez-Berrocal, & Brackett, 2008).  This increases the importance of emotional intelligence skills training because professional development or training in emotional intelligence skills can support teachers’ coping skills within a stressful environment.  Teacher burnout becomes more predictable in relation to stress.

Alternatively, teachers exhibiting high emotional intelligence use more positive, well-adapted, coping strategies to deal with different sources of stress at school, thereby feeling greater job satisfaction (Palomera et al., 2008).  Surveyed teachers identified the ability to regulate emotions as indispensable for reaching academic goals (Palomera et al., 2008).  If emotional intelligence skills training become essential part of a preparation program’s curriculum to mitigate teacher burnout, the long-term benefit will be exhibited by an educator’s professional longevity, personal satisfaction, and student learning.

Studies involving teaching and learning typically focus upon knowledge, cognition, and skill.  Studies involving teacher beliefs or practices allow researchers to make observable measurements.  Despite this propensity, Hargreaves (2001) emphasized the need to address emotional practices since emotions are embedded within the conditions and interactions of teaching.  Thus, educator and leadership preparation programs will benefit from encouraging teaching practices that require increased competence in emotional awareness as well as cognition.

The results of a study by Rojas (2012) asserted three needs for optimal emotional intelligence development among prospective teachers:

1.      Development of emotional intelligence begins with a commitment to change.

2.      Application of emotional intelligence learning is optimized within environments favorable to emotional intelligence development.

3.      Pursuit of an ideal allows interdependent application of all other emotional intelligence competencies.

Action research projects within capstone courses assess most graduate programs’ measurable outcomes.  Results of program completion include competency development in subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and caring teacher leadership skills.

Course objectives need to align with these three competency areas (CAEP, 2013). Capstone research courses often require the students to identify research questions relevant to their program-based studies, review and analyze important research related to the topic, design an action-research study using qualitative or quantitative methodology, and reflect on the implications of their study to enhance the quality of teaching and leadership.  Currently, explicit course work in both emotional intelligence behaviors within the workplace and development of school climate based on Invitational Education theory is missing from surveyed education division graduate programs.

A correlation was found between the demonstration of a leader’s high emotional intelligence behaviors and the perception of a positive school climate (Anderson, 2017).  This suggests that students of teacher preparation and school leadership programs would benefit from measurable course objectives throughout each program that identify expectations for skill development aligned with emotional intelligence competencies and the advancement of optimal school climate.  Measurable outcomes that requires development of emotional intelligence competencies and the recognition of optimal school climate could be influential for mitigating stress, improving job satisfaction, and optimizing school climate that contributes to school success.

To cite:

Anderson, C.J. (November 30, 2018) Graduate programs’ curriculum should explicitly

develop emotional intelligence and leadership skills [Web log post]

Retrieved from http://www.ucan-cja.blogspot.com/

References:

Anderson, C.J. (2017). Examining demonstrated emotional intelligence and perceptions of 

inviting schools. Journal of Invitational Theory and Practice, 23, 35-61

Anderson, C.J. (2016). A correlational study examining demonstrated emotional

intelligence and perceptions of school climate. (Doctoral dissertation).

Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, 10027119

Caldwell, C., & Hayes, L. A. (2007). Leadership, trustworthiness, and the mediating

lens. Journal of Management Development, 26(3), 261–281.

doi:10.1108/02621710710732155

Curry, C. C. (2009). Correlation of emotional intelligence of school leaders to perceptions

of school climate as perceived by teachers. (Order No. 3387434, Indiana University

of Pennsylvania). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 257.

Goleman, D. (2006b). The socially intelligent leader. Educational Leadership,

64(1), 76– 81. Retrieved from:

http://www.ascd.org/publications/educationalleadership/sept06/vol64/num01/toc.aspx

Marzano, R. J., Waters, T., & McNulty, B. A. (2005). School leadership that works:

From research to results. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development. Retrieved from:

http://marzanoresearch.com/products/catalog.aspx?product=13

Maulding, W. S., Townsend, A., Leonard, E., Sparkman, L., Styron, J., & Styron,

R. A. (2010). The relationship between emotional intelligence of principals

and student performance in Mississippi public schools. Academic Leadership

(15337812), 8(4), 67.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso D. R. (2004a). Emotional intelligence: theory

findings and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15 (3), 197-215.

doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1503_02

Rojas, M. (2012). The missing link: Emotional intelligence in teacher preparation.

(Order No. 3495309, Arizona State University). ProQuest Dissertations and

Theses, 220. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ (923616326).

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition,

and Personality, 9 (3), 185-211. doi.org/10.2190/dugg-p24e-52wk-6cdg

Sanders, S.C. (2010) Emotional intelligence, a necessary component of educational

leadership programs, as perceived by professors of educational leadership

(Doctoral Dissertation).

Effective teacher induction programs optimize teacher competencies that sustain success

            To increase effectiveness, teacher preparation and induction programs must align the intent of reform efforts to research-based leading indicators for successful pedagogy.  Reform efforts cannot be to content alone.  Innovative teacher preparation and induction programs should endeavor to exhibit balanced support between the development of the teacher candidate’s pedagogy, promotion of the teacher candidate’s active inquiry, and engagement of faculty across the disciplines.  This endeavor raises expectations for critical thinking, professionalism, and self-efficacy.  Monitoring and adjusting these leading indicators of success requires a clear mission, action-based vision, and systemic invitations to promote intentionality, care, optimism, respect, and trust (I-CORT). 

            Clinical-based training models, inspired a panel commissioned by the National Center for the Accreditation of Teacher Education to endorse “programs that are fully grounded in clinical practice and interwoven with academic content and professional courses” (NCATE, 2010, p. ii).  The report recommended “sweeping changes in how we deliver, monitor, evaluate, oversee, and staff clinically-based preparation to nurture a whole new form of teacher education” (p. iii).  To develop the desired skills and professional competencies, teacher preparation and induction programs must focus upon improving the leading indicators of success. 

However, many teacher preparation programs may erroneously focus upon one trailing indicator: the edTPA.  "The edTPA is designed to align with the authentic teaching practice of the teacher candidate" (SCALE, 2017).  As an authentic assessment of actual practice, the edTPA should encourage teacher preparation and induction programs to ensure its teacher candidates plan, implement and assess, thorough lessons that exhibit differentiated instruction to diverse learners that promote progress monitoring of learning.

However, poor communication and rushed timelines during the implementation of more stringent accountability requirements resulted in unintended consequences.  Significant to this was the fear of failure became the single most powerful force guiding a program’s change initiatives.  Without the time for development and integration of the leading indicators for success, teacher preparation and induction programs will remain subject to unintended consequences. 

            To begin the process of developing teacher competencies that sustain professional success and promotes attainment of the learning for all mission, teacher preparation and induction programs seeking to be high performing need to utilize an aligned lesson plan.  Minimally, adoption and utilization of an aligned lesson plan will elicit every teacher candidate’s understanding of:

•          The context for learning;
•          The state’s learning standards such as the Common Core, etc…;
•          The connection to previous learning;
•         The group’s measurable learning objective;
•          The central focus for the group;
•          The need for differentiated instruction that includes:

o   any focus learner’s primary learning target,

o   necessary instructional supports,

o   how to incorporate academic language,

o   the range of diverse instructional strategies, and

o   a reliable assessment of learning that is linked to the measurable learning objective. 

    

     Thus, a standards-based measurable learning objective becomes the foundation for an aligned lesson plan.  Effective teacher preparation and induction programs that expect utilization of an aligned lesson plan would not ask, “How do we help our students pass the edTPA?”  Rather, by teaching its teacher candidates to utilize a formative and summative perspective, an effective teacher preparation and induction program would empower its teacher candidates to master the development of measurable learning objectives and the other areas of the aligned lesson plan.  When this occurs, the leading indicators of success positively influence the results of trailing indicators such as the edTPA. 

            An effective teacher preparation and induction program emphasizes an action research approach to promote sustainability of success.  Through curriculum mapping and a respect for learning progressions (Idol & West, 1993), an effective teacher preparation and induction program ensures the establishment of solid learning outcomes for its preparation course work.  Once the three-pronged foundations are engrained systemically, the teacher preparation and induction program is freed to monitor how to deliver, evaluate, oversee, and staff a clinically-rich, teacher preparation and induction program. 

            Effective teacher preparation and induction programs seek to create a solid foundation formed from research-based leading indicators for success.  Matching a program’s non-negotiable goals with individual school needs will expand rather than limit the availability of research-based and success-proven strategies and interventions.  Programs that promote such a clearinghouse of support ensure professional development is available and within reach.  

Optimized support empowers stakeholders to access, review, and implement a range of interventions, thereby enriching teacher candidates through defined autonomy.  This systematizes sustained pedagogical success by ensuring the foundational indicators are available to and mastered by its teacher candidates.  The stakeholders of an effective program can then be more reflective, data-driven, and innovative, as the engrained systems reinforce the concept of defined autonomy (Marzano & Waters, 2009).  By focusing upon the leading indicators rather than trailing indicators, teacher preparation and induction programs ensure its teacher candidates successfully develop the competencies that are essential for attaining the learning for all mission (Edmonds, 1979).  That is a far, far, better outcome than focusing upon how to craft commentaries that would yield a proficient score on a teacher preparation test.  

To cite:

Anderson, C.J. (October 31, 2018) Effective teacher induction programs optimize teacher competencies

that sustain success.[Web log post] Retrieved from http://www.ucan-cja.blogspot.com/

References:

Edmonds, R. (1979). Effective Schools for the urban poor. Educational Leadership, 37, 15-24.

Marzano, R. & Waters, T.(2009).  District leadership that works. Bloomington, In: Solution Tree Press

Considering Educational Change Initiatives: The role of data compared to intuition

Effective facilitators of change initiatives understand the difference between the role of data compared to the role of intuition during the decision-making process.  While data may be misinterpreted, intuition is typically subject to bias.  Therefore, it is important to reconcile the efficacy of the data analysis process rather than depending upon intuition when seeking valid and reliable solutions.     

Effective Schools Research (Lezotte & Snyder, 2011) proved the value of formative assessments when seeking to optimize student learning.  In relation to the evaluation of learning, major differences exist between the purpose and value of standardized summative tests compared to formative assessments.  Standardized summative tests typically are assessments OF learning.  By contrast, formative assessment presents the opportunity to develop assessments FOR learning (Stiggins, 2008).  

Educational leaders, intent on increasing the system’s collective capacity for student achievement, ensure collaborative school teams create common formative assessments.  Dufour et al (2008) cited Reeves’ (2004) belief that when collaboratively created, common formative assessments are the “best practice in assessment” (p.71).  As part of the evaluation process, leaders should emphasize the need for potential solutions to be derived from diverse data analysis grounded in research-based best practices.  By contrast, identification and implementation of changes based on faulty analysis, skewed by bias-laden intuition, could either result in paralysis by analysis or knee jerk reactions.  The goal of assessment proficiency is to allow teachers to collect data based on student learning and then help them to reliably adjust instruction or interventions to optimize the learning for all mission.    

Assessment is how educators can measure or confirm learning.  Based on this simple reality, effective teachers grasp the reality that assessment and learning are two COMPLIMENTARY sides of the education process.  Therefore, diverse assessment data help reflective teachers' creativity, leading to innovative but reliable instruction and interventions.   

The development of common formative assessments through professional learning communities enhance the assessment literacy of involved teachers (Dufour et al., 2008) and mitigate potential bias.  Crucially, collaborative teams outperform individual efforts, therefore, "learning not only occurs in teams but endures" (Schmoker, 1999, p. 12).  Social cognition theory (Vygotsky, 1979) and the emotional tenor of the school (Reason, 2010) are two factors that help a collaborative team exhibit increased levels of innovation and creativity compared to a single teacher operating within a lonely, isolated classroom.  An effective leader does not leave the emotional tenor of a school to chance.  Rather, she or he promotes an emotionally positive climate and collaborative culture that highlights sustained learning as monitored through diverse assessments.   

Researchers believe deep and meaningful professional development results when staff creatively and reliably DO the work rather than either training to do or planning to do the work (Stiggins, 1999; Pfeffer and Sutton, 2000; Fullan, 2001; Dufour et al., 2008).  Therefore, an effective leader enhances the practical application of collaborative assessments and shared data points by ensuring analysis, application, and formation of next steps within an effective professional learning community (PLC) rather than through isolated, autonomous classrooms.  An effective school-based PLC relies on the creation and analysis of collaborative assessments, embraces collective inquiry, commits to continuous improvement, and is results-oriented (Dufour et al., 2008). 

In summary, an effective school’s decision-making processes shape its learning agenda based on the utilization of both formative and summative assessment data analysis.  Common formative assessments are essential (Reeves, 2006) but optimized when developed, implemented, and reviewed through an approach that is systemically engrained by tenets of an effective professional learning community (Schmoker, 2004b; Dufour et al, 2008; Marzano & Waters, 2009).  Unlike summative assessments, common formative assessments increase creativity grounded in defined autonomy (Marzano & Waters, 2009).  Formative and summative assessment data analysis reliably satisfies the correlate of frequent monitoring and adjustment (Lezotte, 1991).  Compared to intuition-fueled beliefs, diverse data analysis based on research, defined autonomy, and effective collaborative practices lead to more informed, reliable solutions that result in sustained success.   

To cite:  

Anderson, C.J. (September 30, 2018) Considering educational change initiatives: The role of data  

compared to intuition. [Web log post] Retrieved from http://www.ucan-cja.blogspot.com/   

References 

DuFour, R., DuFour, R., & Eaker, R. (2008). Revisiting professional learning communities at  

work: New insights for improving schools. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. 

Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

Lezotte, L. (1991). Correlates of effective schools: The first and second generation. Okemos,  

MI: Effective Schools Products. Retrieved from: http://www.effectiveschools.com 

Lezotte, L. W., & Snyder, K. M. (2011). What effective schools do: Re-envisioning the correlates.  

Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. 

Marzano, R. & Waters, T.(2009). District leadership that works. Bloomington, IN: Solution  

Tree Press 

Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. (2000). The knowing-doing gap: How smart companies turn knowledge  

into action. Boston: Harvard Business School. 

Reason, C. (2010). Leading a learning organization: The science of working with others.  

Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. 

Reeves, D. (2004). Accountability for learning: How teachers and school leaders can take  

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Reeves, D. (2006). The learning leader. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and  

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Schmoker, J, (1999) The Key to Continuous School Improvement (2nd ed.) Arlington, VA: 

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Stiggins, R. (1999). Assessment, student confidence, and school success. Phi Delta Kappan,  

              81(3), 191–198. 

Stiggins, R. (2001). Student-involved classroom assessment (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:  

Prentice Hall. 

Stiggins, R. (2008). Assessment FOR Learning, the Achievement Gap, and Truly Effective 

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Tudge, J., & Scrimsher, S. (2003). Lev S. Vygotsky on education: A cultural-historical,  

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